Tim Salmon, author of Dhiava, The Green Meridian (about a walk he did through the centre of France) and many other fascinating books, has put me right about the Vlachs which John Campbell studied for his DPhil.  They were not Vlachs but Sarakatsani, who speak 'a very archaic Greek dialect', whereas the Vlachs' language is (of course) related to Romanian. 

This is as usual a belated update for anyone who is interested: of the four or five flocks I've been following by mobile phone, Ghita's arrived a month ago in judetul Salaj; Dumitru's is in judetul Bistrita, on its way to Salaj as well; Aurelia's sheep have been two days' walk away in Valea Salistei since late October (and will return to her coliba in Jina's hotarul de jos this month), and Nicolae's never left the village.  When I spoke to him today, he said that the drought which caused such concern in the summer has continued and there was nowhere else for him to take his animals.  He and his brother were thinking of trekking across to the Mures Valley, but there is not enough grass in that area, and they won't be doing transhumance this year.  Instead the sheep are at home in Jina, feeding on the extra hay and maize which Nicolae has bought in.  He didn't sound devastated about not having to go on the road.  I'm still planning to go back in February, as long as that doesn't interfere with lambing. 

Last week I went to the opening of Dragos Lumpan's third exhibition in Wales this year: his photographs from Transhumance: A Comparative Study are on show at the National Wool Museum in Drefach Felindre, Carmarthenshire until January 2012.  Dragos's photos are stunning both as documentary images and for their artistic quality.  They cover six countries (Albania, Greece, Italy, Turkey, Romania and Wales).  He aims to go further afield in the future, and wants his project to stimulate discussion.  Which he has done: speaking in both Welsh and English at the launch was Dr. Eurwyn William, former Deputy Director General of the National Museum of Wales, and former Curator of the Museum of Welsh Life at St. Fagan's.  Eurwyn William has written a lot of books about Welsh vernacular architecture but researching the history of transhumance is also a passion of his.  He gave us an overview of transhumance in Wales, saying that it had arrived in the country by the early Middle Ages, but nobody knows when the practice began there.  The old semi-nomadic transhumance whereby who communities would up sticks with all their animals and move to their summer farms (hafodau, lluestau) in April or May, returning home to the hendre (old place, family farm) somewhere around All Souls' Day has long gone - it died out at the time of the Black Death.  He told us that transhumance was a 'posh' term for seasonal movements of livestock between grazing grounds, and that you could say that people are still doing it when they go on holiday; you could also call commuting to work a kind of transhumance! What now happens in Wales is a reduced form of transhumance, also known as pendulation, and after they've come down from the moors and mountains, the sheep go to winter pastures (rented land or tack) by lorry rather than on foot.  

There wasn't a huge audience at the launch but it was a very friendly gathering.  Apart from a few stalwarts, including a woman sheep farmer who keeps 20 sheep near Felindre (moving them to a higher altitude for winter and a lower one for summer, which might seem counter-intuitive except that the temperature at her lower grazing ground is colder in the winter), we did get a party of students from Yale College in Wrexham who stood at the back and took masses of photos.  One of them was wearing a hat like a sheep. 

After that I said a few words about shepherding in Romania, having looked at figures for the export of lambs the previous night.  (After my FOOC piece on Smalzul, somebody challenged my statement that as a rule Romanians don't eat much lamb - it's true that they buy a great deal of it for Easter but it's not that popular during the rest of the year.)  Most Romanian lamb is exported to Greece, Italy, Syria, Bulgaria and Hungary, in that order.  Saudi Arabia buys some too, and sales are increasing to France and the Netherlands.  Having just spent a little time campaigning against the live transportation of horses for meat over long distances in Europe, I feel a certain twinge about how lambs are carried to slaughter.  Is it kinder to kill them in the European way or the Arabian way?  Or possibly the traditional Romanian way, by cutting the main artery in the leg. It's horrid to think about but I'm a carnivore and trying not to be hypocritical. 

The museum's cooks prepared a buffet consisting of food from all the six countries in Dragos's show.  I recognised Romanian cozonac; it tasted just as good as when I've had it over there. 

Spurred on by the interest in mixed grazing as a way of sustaining bio-diversity, I contacted the Grazing Advice Project (GAP) project in Wales and Nick Page of ADEPT, the NGO that is helping to encourage small-scale, sustainable farming in Romania.  Barbara Knowles of Treasures of Transylvania (http://sites.google.com/site/barbaraknowlesproject) and the Pogany Havas Microregion (http://poganyhavas.hu/) has also kindly given me permission to publish an interview with her, which is on my website, www.mamaliga.co.uk.  There is a huge amount of information about EU initiatives to help small graziers in La Canada, a newsletter you can download from http://www.efncp.org/ (The European Forum on Nature Conservation and Pastoralism). 

Radu Totoianu's doctoral thesis on shepherding in Valea Sebesului has inspired me to go there too: if anything there is as much happening in that area as in Marginimea Sibiului.  He took nine years to gather his material and has looked into almost every aspect of the practice, including practical ones like feeding and treating sick animals, as well as beliefs connected to shepherding, songs and verses. 

Incidentally, Dr William gave me a contact for an expert on Vlach shepherds in North Wales.  Dr. John Ellis Jones told me modestly he wasn't an expert himself but that in the 1950s he had spent a lot of time with John Campbell who wrote his D Phil thesis about a Vlach shepherding village in northern Greece, near the Albanian border.  John Ellis Jones is a Classicist; he recalled that one of the villages stood near the site of the Battle of Actaeon, and his happiest memories with the Campbells were of Christmas 1954 in the British School at Athens.  But he also remembered seeing round and rectangular shepherds' huts covered in thatch.  They were their summer homes. 

There are pictures to come (for Vlachs of northern Greece, you want Tim Salmon's book and DVD, Dhiava...) 

Shepherds' update

Having had to return home before my shepherd friends went on the road, I made contact with three of them this morning.  The first, Nicolae from Jina, was in too much of a hurry to talk to me and asked me to ring him back after three hours (when I did he said he hadn't left the mountains yet, because it's still too dry on the plateau and he's got nowhere to take his sheep. He's going to wait at Crint until it starts snowing).  The second, Ghita, also from Jina, said he was near Cluj, everything was fine, and he hopes to reach Zalau in a couple of weeks.  The third, Dumitru, from Rasinari, hasn't set out yet because of the seceta (drought).  He told me he will get going on Monday.  He'll be taking five other men with him and about 14 donkeys, I don't know how many dogs, and - almost forgot - all his sheep, which number at a rough guess 1500 (but don't quote me on this, because Romanian shepherds are rather shy of admitting how many head they own).

There is a new law which limits the numbers of dogs shepherds are allowed to take with them on the road to two per thousand head of sheep. Ghita is angry about that, and is urging for a change in the rules.  I guess he is walking with about 1000 head, and two supporting shepherds.  From his point of view the two-dog limit leaves his flock extremely vulnerable to attacks by other animals, and, although he didn't say so, by people.  In our short conversation he said they hadn't had any problems.  But - was it my imagination? - when I asked this question his voice changed, as though it made him tense.  It all seems very remote - and archaic - from my desk in a dry house in wet west Wales, where the sheep are still on their Preselau arosfau (hefts) and will only go to winter grazing at the end of November (by truck).

In December, the Welsh National Wool Museum will hold the third 2011 UK showings of Dragos Lumpan's photo exhibition, The Last Transhumance, which yours truly helped to get off the ground.

My previous two posts were made in retrospect - the events they describe happened in September.

Imperious sheep and purple prose

Maria is a farmer who lives in Sadu, one of 18 villages from the area known as Mărginimea Sibiului, the Edge of Sibiu[1].  Small of stature, plump and full of good humour, Maria is refreshingly direct.  You feel that if she didn't like you, she wouldn't bother with you.  To work she wears a dashing straw hat, no matter whether she is selling her cheese in the piaţa (a farmers’ market[2]) or chivvying her ewes into the strunga to be milked.  Her hat makes her look like a cross between an 18th century milkmaid and a garden party hostess. 

I met her three years ago, when I was staying in Sibiu with the Pavelescu family. Amalia Pavelescu is an anthropologist with a deep love of Romanian folklore.[3] She inherited her passion from her father, Professor Gheorghe Pavelescu, who wrote books about Romanian magic, and about the soul bird, a simple, round figure of a bird you can see on wooden grave posts in certain areas of Transylvania.  The soul bird is what anthropologists call a psychopomp, in other words a being that carries dead souls to the realms of heaven.  While she teaches at Lucian Blaga University and lives in the city, Amalia’s roots are in the countryside – one of her cousins is a sheep farmer who still goes on the road - and she buys her cheese from Maria’s stall in Piaţa Vasile Aaron, a covered market on the north-eastern edge of Sibiu near her flat. Maria and I got talking then.

Yesterday Maria invited me to see one of her sheep folds (she and her husband have got two of them). It lies about five miles to the north of Sibiu, far enough from the traffic fumes to be able to look back at the city and sigh: what a magical place it is. As the sun started to set, light from the West caught the corners of towers, church spires and high-rise buildings as though singling out this nexus of people and their sophisticated, urban concerns for a special blessing.

The sky had started to cloud over as we left the city, but it was still very warm. Maria drove her old black VW Golf like a racing driver, shooting out into traffic and talking at the top of her voice. She always shouts even when you are sitting right next to her. She speaks from the back of her throat, as though ready to yell to her husband across the vast spaces that often separate them. In the past few days, her husband Martin, who is in his early 60s, has had to spend more of his time living out with the flock. Their hired man disappeared a few days' ago, saying he was tired of the work, tired of sleeping out in a tin box built for shepherds, tired of the indignity, boredom and indecent pay[4], and goodness knows what else. He's gone so I can't ask him. He was a Moldovan, they told me, almost as if that explained everything: it meant that he came from the Republic of Moldova, which borders on Romania’s eastern provinces, and that in their eyes he was demanding and workshy.

Maria has a beaming smile that engages everyone she meets. It's impossible to resist, and her husband is nearly as beamy. They are in their 60s, with no pension to look forward to, and 300 ewes to milk every day. They have no holidays either, but their three children are doing well, they say; one of the girls has started a cattle farm and she too sells her produce – cow's cheese and milk – in Piaţa Vasile Aaron t. The stall costs them ten pounds a day. I didn't ask how much they usually make in a day. I could tell from Maria's face that wasn't enough to make her feel comfortable about her future.

But Maria and her family are better off than some: they have a house in the village of Sadu and hay meadows near Cisnădioara. They rent most of their grazing land from private owners.

Maria pulled off the road to Valea Hărtibaciului with a swerve; the surface was being repaired and there was a big drop between the level of the asphalt and the verge. I thought we were going to park there, but she nosed the Golf through a gap in the ragged hedge and woah, away we went, bumping over earth which by virtue of leaving the known world (the road, connected to drudgery and stress) turned miraculously from rough, old, dry scrub of no interest whatsoever to a vast arena of free space.

After two bone-shaking minutes while the horizon veered like ocean waves, we pulled up beside a shack.  Maria parked the Golf next to a dusty maroon pick-up.  The shack was their coliba, or summer farm, and it had an annexe: a shelter used for cooking the milk to turn it into cheese.

Bustling about in her floral frock, Maria immediately produced some cas (pron. 'cash', fresh sheep's curd cheese), a huge mug of warm milk, some bread hacked from a magnificent white loaf, and a couple of peppers - all for me.  A few years ago such fare would have turned my stomach.  Even now I had to get a grip, knowing that in this environment, where flies buzzed happily among scraps of slanina (pork fat) left over from a previous meal, presentation meant nothing, what mattered was the taste.  I feel bad even admitting my reservations, because Maria was so kind.  She was showing the kind of generosity which I had met so many times on my travels in Romania, and which increasingly makes me feel humble and slightly guilty - I have to ask myself if I would do the same for her if she visited me at home. 

While I was making my way through what this rich and delicious snack, a small, friendly dog peered at me, hoping for scraps.  Its coat was brindled and shaggy, its nose black and wet, its teeth gleamed from a lifetime of gnawing.  I hoped not on people. 

 

 Nu musta! (He doesn't bite) shouted Maria although I was only two feet away from her. The dog’s name was Tibi. He was supposed to be the herding, barking dog in the family's canine team but at that moment, he seemed more interested in a) food, and b) sniffing my legs.

There was no sign of the large, ragged animals that are kept for protecting the sheep against wolves and other marauders. There wasn't much sign of the sheep either, except for far away on the other side of the gentle valley, to the left of the old collective farm, where a distant splodge of lighter brown distinguished itself from the darker brown grass of the dry pasture. It looked a long way away. Grown lazy from my city life, I hoped I wouldn't have to walk there.

Maria had brought me here to watch the milking, and to tell me about the day to day problems she and her husband have to face to keep their farm afloat.

They are lucky: they have received money from Subvenţia 141, one of the current support packages which the EU has been handing out to small Romanian farmers under the Common Agricultural Policy.  But they've missed out on another chance; shepherds who keep their flocks in the mountains can benefit from a scheme that gives money for keeping the pastures grazed. It's part of a new initiative linked to Natura 2000, a project designed to aid areas of High Nature Value Grassland, on the margins of agriculture, where pastures and wild mountains merge.  Like all such projects, they look good on paper, and one of my reasons for wanting to meet farmers was to find out if the subventions made any difference.  The answer usually was a guarded yes, or a shrug of the shoulders.  The money helps but it's not enough to live on, and the way the subventions are doled out often benefits landowners rather than farmers who rent their land and who may spend more time looking after it.  As always, the situation on the ground is not as simple or as easy as it looks. 

 

I said that the grazing had looked miserable from the road.  When I had eaten my fill, we walked over the rolling land to the strunga, the sheep’s milking parlour. On the way I looked at the grass. It was very dry - you could lose your fist in the cracks in the soil - but contained an astonishing number and variety of flowers, herbs and grasses. I brushed my hand over some of them, releasing the scent of mint.

The strunga lay tucked a few hundred yards away over the brow of a low hill that descended to a stream. About 150 ewes, lambs and rams had been gathered outside the turla (small corral), waiting to be driven inside its fences and in the ewes’ cases, to be milked. The rest of their flock was at the other stâna.

The sky lowered in the distance; I thought a storm would soon be breaking over our heads, soaking us to the skin. Looking south, the view to left and right was brought to a beautiful, irrevocable and very final finishing point by the Southern Carpathian Mountains. In the Middle Ages, the Carpathian chain (Eastern and Southern) formed a border between Hungary and the Romanian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (to the North lay Poland and earlier, the Lithuanian empire). People still talk about the differences between Romanians on either side of these magnificent natural barriers: the Wallachians say that the Transylvanians are slow-thinking, cold and orderly, while the Transylvanians accuse the Wallachians of being sharp and unprincipled, and both of them look with exasperated – but indulgent - pity on the Moldavians as children who are unruly, fanciful, impractical and probably unreliable, but charming too.   

The Carpathians aren’t big by global standards – the highest is Mt. Moldoveanu. Its name means The Moldavian, for some reason, even though it stands between Transylvania and Wallachia, and rises to 2544m, about half the height of Mt. Blanc. But although the Carpathians are dwarfed by the Alps and even more so by the Himalayas and the Andes, they have a presence that not only commands respect but which also gives plenty of scope to the poetic imagination. It is not for nothing that these hills have attracted so many travel writers, including hordes of British whose famous reserve has been blown away by the mountains’ splendour. The Carpathians have peaks that zigzag along the horizon, tall enough for snow in summer, and wild enough to be home to bears, wolves, lynxes and wild boars. They are a conservationist’s dream but a shepherd’s nightmare.  

We were about 30 miles away from them, and Maria’s stana was a wonderful viewing point. Before me, shutting off the rest of the world but also protecting us from it, the mountains were a concentration of dark blues rising to paler tones as the peaks receded and met the sky, rows of blunted shark’s teeth as far as the eye could see. When you focussed on them, the hard, finality of the mountains as national frontiers melted away, and you could see that each one had its own unique shape. It was immensely soothing to have all this space around you and the mountains as a guard. But they weren’t rigid but soft-edged and changeable. Their outline was basically the same but within that limit, it was always shifting; everything depended on your position and the sharpness of your vision. Concentrate on one place and you discovered new summits and valleys, folds and gulleys. Everything intersected, making the picture flow. Unquestionably ‘there’ as a geographical, geophysical, geological, metereological fact, the magnificent ridges made patterns that were only as real as my perception allowed. They were also a perfect lesson in aerial perspective. Where was my art history class now?

Having greeted her husband and delivered the beer he had asked for, Maria chatted away energetically while I took in my surroundings. Vasile was a sunburnt, work-hardened little whippet of a man whose grin split his face. He was as quiet as Maria was voluble. Their partnership had grown its own patterns, reliable and resistant as the mountains.

I realised that this was a perfect chance to record the authentic voice of contemporary Romanian pastoralism. Slightly shrill, insistent with the force of emotion (this is a hard life), but also alert and mirthful, the voice, as represented by Maria, came loud and clear across the strunga. For all I knew it could be heard in Sibiu, resounding off the glinting edifices that shone in their own pool of light like a lost kingdom. The dazzling sunburst and the gathering clouds mimicked Maria and the drama she unfurled.

I held out the Zoom and Maria talked, fluently, grandly, and to perfect purpose, like an actress who is living her lines. Her theatre was the Transylvanian plateau, a vast expanse of grass-covered plain and low, rolling hills which from a distance looks smooth as a lawn[5]. She was the matriarch of the hour, and Her colourful monologue rolled over me like a river in and out of which I dipped at will. Here is something of what she said: she had grown up working with sheep (although she had never got the hang of milking them which made me feel less inadequate), her grandparents and her strabunici (great grandparents) kept sheep, this  had always been one of the most important sheep-raising areas in Romania (‘always’ being a relative term, but it was certainly true since the late 18^th century), they worked from dawn till dusk, year in and year out, they went to buy rams in Moldova (Botoşani) and Sasciori, which has one of the best sheep sales in Romania (twice a year); under the communist regime they had to give a tithe of sheep or lambs to the collecctive, but in Sadu (in the foothills) they weren't collectivised, their food has always been natural, chemical-free, they use lamb's cheag (rennet) to thicken the cheese, and in the past their cheese used to be allowed to mature much longer than it is now; now they have to sell it as soon as they've made it. They have never worked for anyone else, not even under the communists.

Maria walked around the strunga as she talked, breaking off every few seconds to shout, urging, pushing and smacking the sheep with a long pole like a tightrope walker's balance, only hers had a squashed tin can attached to one end by a wire. She cajoled and harried the panting Ţurcanas but I wouldn’t call what she did cruelty. But by then I was getting inured to some of the realities of life on a small farm. Tibi, the small dog who was supposed to be helping round up the sheep her wasn't much use; he seemed more interested in playing or snuffling about.

Sheep are supposed to be stupid animals but I had begun to admire the Ţurcanas. They are bigger and have longer fleeces than most of our British breeds, and their aristocratic faces with Roman noses seemed to express disdain for weaker types. These hardy animals are strong enough to resist Romania’s harsh winter climate, although some farmers are starting to mate them with mild-tempered, fatter German rams. My eyes latched onto a magnificent Ţurcana ram with horns that coiled two and a half times from root to tip. They were like prehistoric springs. His horns were so large it must have been hard for him to see through them. The tips had grown forwards and threatened to poke his eyes out. I imagined him as though painted by Landseer, the Monarch of the Bends. Unimpressed by my concerns, Maria grabbed the ram by a spiralling horn, making mincemeat of his macho image; ‘he’s alright; he’s a prize winner’, she said changing conversational tack as though afraid I might bog her down in animal welfare issues. I asked how old the ram was. ‘Two’, she replied. It seemed young to be carrying such heavy weapons. I didn’t fancy a German ram’s chances in single combat.    

 

It was a homely scene set against an extraordinary landscape – but then I wasn’t doing the work. I moved around the turla and the strunga taking pictures with a camera one hand and recording with the Zoom in the other, trying not to confuse them. Two or three Carpathian sheepdogs, the policemen of the fold, lazed about, scratching themselves and rolling in the scratchy grass.  I was half expecting them to tear me to shreds but they took no notice. I came close to the open end of the strunga to get more detailed images, but Martin raised his head momentarily to ask me to move further off.  My unfamiliar presence was unsettling the sheep. ‘Se strica de ei’, he said, meaning they were scattering and he was afraid of losing them. But although the pasture was huge and unfenced, they wouldn’t have gone very far, and he wasn't cross.

I wanted to talk to him and he motioned me towards his other side, taking the chance of a break in the production line to put a tiny wooden stool on the ground for me to sit on. A stool for milking sheep? I couldn’t catch the answer. From my privileged position I watched him at work. He caught hold of each ewe as it stepped, jumped or was pushed through the opening in the strunga, shooing and kicking away the rams, lambs and shearlings who didn’t have milk, and yanking would-be escapees back by their tails, clenching the ewes firmly between his knees and milking them vigorously so that it took him no more than two or three minutes to finish each one. I didn’t ask how much each one gave; it can’t have been much, especially as it was late in the season. The white, frothy milk spurted into an enamel mug that was strapped at the top of a zinc bucket. The mug stopped was there to stop the milk from splashing all over the place, and when it was full, Martin twisted the cords holding it in place so that it upended and the milk poured into the bucket. Simple. All the while he chatted away, wanting to know what crops we grow in Britain, what types of sheep we have, whether they are bred for meat or milk...  

Overhead the grey sky turned purple-black and in the next valley we heard thunder. I jumped when two or three lightning flashes forked like God's revenge, and I clung to the wooden fence and hoped I wouldn't be struck. Maria laughed at me and went on moving the reluctant sheep, many of whom had sat down (thank you very much) and were dozing, their sides heaving in the muggy atmosphere.

 

The storm passed without raining on us, much to Maria's disgust. The drought had lasted for two months. Blue sky peered through at us to the west, as if to say ‘only joking’. So near and yet so far, Sibiu looked entrancing, a city of the plains with thin plumes of smoke rising from it.

Back at the coliba, I took pictures of Maria straining the milk, squeezing it in calico or nylon sheets, and of her husband in his cojoc. smart as a model on a Milanese catwalk, his bandy legs hidden by the grubby sheep's wool and a large hole which had been torn in the back, he had the ageless, puckish face of a Dacian, straight from Trajan’s Column.

In the coliba there was a straw picture of one of the painted monasteries Voroneţ or Moldoviţa perhaps, judging by its roofline – and a rickety looking bench made of a very thin plank supported on equally thin legs. Plastic sheeting decorated with jolly roses did for a table cloth and wall coverings. The floor was beaten earth and there was a couch for Martin to rest on after his work was done. But tonight he’d have to sleep in the metal box.

The hairy sheepdogs materialised out of nowhere when he called them to supper. Belying their fierce reputations they didn't look dangerous at all, and Tibi started tormenting them, like an irritating younger brother pestering his elders and betters.

Then it was over: Maria packed the milk churns, some caş and me into her car, and we bumped up to the road and back to Sibiu. She promised to give me a traista (a woven wool and cotton shoulder bag patterned with black and white stripes in the regional style), invited me to Sadu for a weekend and waved me off at the edge of Vasile Aaron district where the high-rise flats built during the communist period brought my country idyll to an abrupt end for the day. I felt as though I’d been turfed out from a personal audience with the Queen.

Sibiu, 1 Sept 2011

---

The name has acquired a political edge as well, since historically this place on the

northern slopes of the Cindrel Massif is where the Blachi, Vlachs or ethnic Romanians

withdrew to raise sheep after the Hungarian rulers of Transylvaniainvited northern

Europeans to colonise Sibiu, and these diligent interlopers, who were mostly Germanics

and became known collectively as Saxons, gradually pushed the Romanians back into the

hills. The villages of Mărginimea Sibiului are held to be exclusively Romanian in origin but,

like many such sweeping claims, the closer you look the less certain they become. In some cases it isn’t easy to say whether the founders of the villages were Romanians or Saxons but given the marginalisation of Romanians in Transylvaniaunder Austro-Hungarian rule, the tradition holds up. Mihai Bánffy says as much in his novels about the demise of the Austro-Hungarian empire.

Many of the markets are survivors from pre-communist times. After the 1989 Revolution they continued to flourish, being not only a source of fresh, locally-produced fruit, veg, milk, cheese and meat but vivid splashes of colour which contrasted with the shops which echoed with emptiness in the drab streets of Romania’s towns and cities. Today hundreds of small-scale farms which have been the country’s backbone are struggling to compete with foreign supermarket chains which import food that is already produced in Romania, and with middle-men and women who buy produce from elsewhere and sell it cheaper than the farmers can. All of the people I talked to in Romania said the supermarket food tasted of nothing compared with their own, home-grown produce. They also complained of the high chemical content of imported and processed foods.

[3] The Romanian term for Amalia’s profession is etnolog. She explained the differences between anthropology, ethnology and ethnography with great care but I have entirely forgotten them and in any case we were told by an up to date anthropologist that, in English, what she does is now called social history.

[4] Rates for working as a hired shepherd vary and usually come as a package with food, clothes and cigarettes. The clothes they get may include a cojoc which at August 2011 prices cost between 100 and 120 Euros. The daily rate at this time for scything a hayfield or other similar farm labour was 50 lei, about £10 in sterling.

    [5] Sheep have a single row of teeth so that they crop plants short rather than tugging them from their roots.

Romanian Sheep Folds: The Ideal Home

Emil is a success story. Having grown up in Gura Râului - one of the 18 comune that constitute Mărginimea Sibiului - and 'beaten' to school by his determined mother, he's made himself a profitable building firm, has a pretty house in a smart quarter of Bucharest, drives a couple of cars, but spends as much time as possible in his south Transylvanian home, back in Gura, as it's called (Gura means ‘mouth’, Raului means ‘of the river’ hence Rivermouth). Now in his early 60s, he looks comfortable in his portly skin, his voice is as soft as smântana (when not yelling across great tracts of mountain side for the fun of it) and his smile is seraphic.

Marginimea Sibiului lies immediately to the south of Sibiu city, on the northern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains; its lowest villages nuzzle up to the wooden foothills while the highest, Jina, sits like a crow’s nest overlooking the entire Transylvanian plateau. In the 1400s it was inhabited by people of Romanian and Saxon origins, and it’s not entirely clear who came first (of course the Dacians came first but that was in the Iron Age), but the Romanians as pastoralists and third-class citizens retreated (or were pushed) higher and higher up the mountains where they concentrated on sheep breeding and, not totally incidentally, on getting a good education. Talk to village elders and your ear will be bent with long lists of the great and the good who have issued from these lofty climes. The illuminati include academicians and politicians. As a result people from Marginimea Sibiului tend to think of themselves as a cut above the rest. And they claim that the Saxons, who arrived in Transylvania no earlier than 1100 (bringing the latest wool manufacturing technology with them in the form of industrial-sized looms, which they used to turn Romanian wool into clothes and rugs), took their best pastures. In turn the Saxons say that the Romanians benefited from their business acumen, and borrowed their fashions. Regional dress in Marginimea Sibiului comes in a smart but severe black and white, very different from the colourful clothes worn in other areas.

The Mărgineni have a reputation for being good at making money. Under the communists, Mărgineni shepherds were said to have acquired vast fortunes from dealing in milk and cheese; there is a joke that one of them asked Ceauşescu for a helicopter to oversee his sheep, and stories still abound about the palatial buildings and top of the range vehicles that lay hidden behind the forbidding double doors of Mărgineni homesteads far from prying eyes, in a time when for most Romanians a crippling austerity ruled their lives.

Whatever the truth, it's hard to grudge someone like Emil his good fortune. His love of the place where he grew up, his enduring friendships with schoolmates, his keenness to encourage cultural enterprises in Mărginimea Sibiului, his pride in the achievements of the area's many illuminati (large numbers of distinguished academics, politicians, lawyers and doctors came from here in the past), his openness, kindness, geniality, courtesy all speak in his favour.

I met him through the astonishing Corneliu Bucur, another larger than life dynamo who turned the open air museum in Sibu into an internationally admired institution that has won prizes all over the world. Mr Bucur put me in touch with an association called the Friends of Marginimea Sibiului, and Emil was one of its founder members.

Our first meeting came in a cold, hard, institutional building in Bucharest, as far from the haunts of sheep and wild thyme as I ever want to get. Sentimentality apart, the Friends were trying to set up all kinds of imaginative schemes to lure tourists to the area. I still don't know if they'll achieve anything other than great bonhomie, but it would be churlish to snipe at the welcome I received, not to speak of the free copies of books like Maria Sterp's verse saga describing every sheepfold in the mountains around Jina.

The trouble with sentimentality is that it doesn't really get you anywhere. If you want facts and figures, you'd have to look elsewhere: the Friends aren't interested in scientific, legalistic surveys, I feel.

Emil Rudeanu's great fondness for his birthplace got me a trip to another sheepfold. It was a blinder. Or to put it another way, it could have been a model for the Ideal Home of sheep folds. The stana lies up above Gura Raului, where its owner comes from, high on the mountains immediately to the south of Sibiu. On a clear day you can see the city glistening 10 miles away as the buzzard flies.  It stands on undulating ground with plenty of tree cover to shelter you from the wind and snow, with a magnificent view. As in many places where sheep graze the Carpathians, the mountain tops resemble English 18^th century parkland. Maybe that’s why so many of us Brits have fallen in love with them.

The park analogy is inadequate, belittling much more magnificent spaces. On this grand eminence, breathing air that is so pure it makes you want to sing, you feel as if you could take off from the flat ledge where the stana and its turla, strunga and grajde perch, quite safe from being blown over, but close to eternity.  Edmund Burke, eat your heart out!

We walked a quarter of a mile from where Emil left his car; as well as me, he had brought a friend along who turned out to be the brother of another shepherd whose flock I had encountered on the road four years earlier. At the sight of the sheep I had screeched to a halt, leapt out of my hired car and rushed across the fields to gibber at the hired hands, who must have been used to crazy English women going wild in their country. The incredible antiquity of that pastoral scene had made me want to follow the path I was now on. The sheep farmer’s name was Ion and he lived in the Margineni village of Rasinari – birthplace of politician and writer Octavian Goga and philosopher Emil Cioran and once home to more shepherds than you could shake a bâta (shepherd’s stick) at. I had tried to contact him at home but been put off by his wife who was brushing the ground in front of her gate when I turned up with Amalia, burning with (possibly rather competitive) anthropological zeal. On hearing that I wanted to talk to her life partner, she scowled and muttered something about him being out of sorts. A neighbour walked past and laughed, Drunk again, is he? Disheartened I gave up on Ion, but never forgot my chance encounter with the antediluvian scene of sheep on transhumance, one built upon years of other impromptu, and intensely romantic (if not Romantic, Neo-classical, Rococo as well as Medieval, in any case a non-farming art historian’s embarrassment of riches) sightings of sheep, donkeys, dogs, and shepherds in their cojoace (calf-length sheepskin cloaks, not too long, please note, otherwise the bottoms would get wet in the snow). Not to speak of their clopuri (pot-shaped hats made of felt).

It was the elusive Ion’s brother that joined us on our exhilarating drive up the corniche to Paltinis and on the short walk to the sheep fold. Dumitru (Mitica for short) was one of the most talkative people I've ever met. He and Emil had been schoolmates, and they were behaving like schoolboys now: two rather fat, jovial, energetic, enthusiastic kids yelling and screaming in the open air. Both had ‘grown up with sheep' as they say in Romania: Emil told me that his mother had to come after him with a stick in order to get him to school – he far preferred being out with the flocks. But then as now, shepherding was a dead end unless you've got money and/or prospects – being an angajat (hired man) is regarded as the pits, something that ex-convicts fall back on, although, as I found out, that was a simplistic view. However you regard shepherding as a profession, Emil’s time with the sheep sparked a love of nature that has lasted all his life.

Yo, ho, huey, he shouted to the surrounding audience of fir and beech woods, of birch and hazel coppicing. His voice rose and fell like an opera singer's, just a little bit flatter in pitch, but rousing all the same.

The stana belonged to a much younger man called Gheorghe, who came out to meet us, with a cheerful grin on his face. They were obviously old friends and he seemed genuinely delighted to have company. Gheorghe was born in Gura, which lay a little to the east and right of us, in the foothills. We could see its terracotta roofs on the way back to the car. The village lies close to Orlat, where the Habsburg army had trained local recruits to be border guards.  A Teutonic-style discipline is said to have rubbed off on Gura too; my anthropologist friend, Amalia, told me it was known to have a Germanic orderliness.

These good habits, which many Sibieni see as a positive Saxon legacy, must have filtered up the mountains too.  Gheorghe's stana was as neat as an old fashioned hat pin. Everything was clean, tidy, well-organised, even the flies were missing. He even had a clump of daisies growing outside the coliba. It was an old wooden building on a stone base, built into the side of a slope, facing east.

It had two rooms, the second immediately behind the first, so you had to walk through the first like a hall to reach it. The first room was a kitchen cum storeroom cum cheese making room. To the left of the front door the rough concrete and rubble floor had been scraped away or left clear for a fire. There was no chimney but some rusty metal sheets helped to protect the flames from the wind when the door was open, and the door had to be open to let out the smoke.

Paleolithic meets Victorian mountain cabin, perhaps. Gheorghe had arranged everything so that everything had its place: there were shelves for bottles and jars, hooks for mugs, benches for piles of neatly folded woollen blankets, a lovely auburn and white plaid (specific to this area, too, not only Jina) among them. Outside, just beside the coliba entrance was a plastic bowl on a stand to wash your hands in (no running water, don't forget), a water tub for drinking water (not sure how it was collected), and inside low energy bulbs had been wired into both rooms. They were powered by diesel-fired generator and Gheorghe said he didn't use them very often. The back room was a bedroom with three beds arranged around the walls. There were three windows so it was light and pleasant under its low wooden beams. The beds were covered in an assortment of rugs and blankets, also the floor and the walls, which were trimmed with woven 'runners' as in many traditional homes. It looked inviting, picturesque and, though it pains me to say it, a perfect setting for Goldilocks and the Three Bears. (I must be getting tired!)

The chatter between the three friends was so intense that I amused myself by petting the puppy, a six-month old Ciobanesc with a gentle, slightly calculating disposition (what was I good for, he must have wondered), and making careful approaches to its mother, a much larger, gruff looking bitch who looked at me under sceptical brows, but consented to say hello after a while.

A few hundred yards below us stood the strunga and turla, the milking 'parlour' and its corral. A shepherd led his flock towards us over a well-grazed lawn: Gheorghe was due to start smuls, but our arrival distracted him and he insisted on making us bulz, mamaliga wrapped around a chunk of branza de burduf and cooked in the cinders of his open fire. He also gave each of us a brimming mug of jintita, very rich and creamy curds and whey, something like Central Asian kermiss but without being fermented.

I wanted to know how many shepherds would go on transhumance from Marginimea Sibiului this year. Gheorghe thought about 20. He himself would head north for Blaj with his 800 head, but only in November, whereas most had told me they would make tracks on or shortly after St. Dumitru's Day (14 October). I made a mental note to try and keep track of him; he looked like good company and if all else failed...

The bulz was delicious and all the more enjoyable for watching Gheorghe make it. First he prepared mamaliga in a cauldron which he hung over the open hearth with a cleverly placed wooden arm that slotted into the wall.

When the mamaliga had boiled and he had patted it into a round pillow, drained it and put it out onto a plate, Gheorghe brought out a branza de burduf. This is mashed cas (sheep's cheese and cheag lamb's rennet - from the first boiling) forced into a sheep's stomach. A bit like a haggis. The one Gheorghe placed on the table in front of me looked so much like one of the featureless marble heads by Brancusi that I had to say so. Was this an art historical break-through? Could the suant, smooth-surfaced Muses, First Cries and Births of the World have come from seeing a bag of cheese? Surely I couldn't be the first to have noticed the similarity.

Only Emil had the slightest idea of what I was talking about, so I babbled to him incoherently for a minute or two, until the excitement subsided. Perhaps the Burlington Magazine could live without an article on this subject.

As I feverishly tried to photograph the burduf before it disappeared into the bulz, Gheorghe expertly undid the stitching at the 'neck' end of the 'head' and cut into the cheese with a cutter made from a piece of fine wire attached to a bent ash twig. It was a wonderfully simple, inventive piece of kit, like a small bow that was permanently pulled back to its point of greatest tension. Gheorghe had varnished it a rich red brown colour to make it easier to clean. I thought of chic London cooking shops where he could sell such an item for a mint. I must have been hallucinating again (hunger) because I also saw it as a model for Brancusi's Nocturnal Animal.

It wasn't the only thing of beauty attached to the stana: outside was a low stool made from a log that Gheorghe had cut in half and sawn off the side branches to make the legs. It worked perfectly. Dumitru tried it out to show how strong it was.

I didn't want to betray any allegiances, but the atmosphere in Gheorghe's sheepfold was so calm (no bawling and throwing crowbars at dogs, at least not while I was there) and so well-ordered that I felt it would be much nicer to stay here than anywhere I had yet seen. But we had to leave; after Gheorghe had stuffed a wadge of branza de burduf into a fistful of mamaliga three times, wrapped them round into the shape of a rugger ball and cooked them on the fire, we gorged ourselves on one each, and after a suitable pause, said our goodbyes. I got Gheorghe's mobile phone number and asked him if he'd mind my contacting him again. He said no. We hoped he'd finish the milking before dusk.

Emil and Dumitru whooped and sang their way back to the car, listening for their echoes and making themselves bate from dead branches found along the way, and we rumbled our way down the sandy paths to the asphalt, filled up our water bottles from a spring beside the road and trundled back to Sibiu.

The next day Amalia came to see me. She was curious about the stana visit; she had been invited but couldn't go because of work. I told her how tidy everything was. Ah, she said, that's because Gheorghe was from Gura Raului. What difference does that make, I asked. It's a very German village, said my sage friend, tapping her nose with a finger. It's close to Orlat, the village where the Hapsburgs trained their border guards. The orderly influence rubbed off; it's a known fact. I wanted to find out if Gheorghe's artistic bent had created any other wonders: was he a budding Brancusi?

That evening I wondered how many farmers from Sibiu county received subventions in 2011? What did they amount to? How much can they get per sheep? How much for their mountain land, to keep it 'clean'? I knew this was an issue between landowners and the graziers – the graziers feeling that they should receive the money because they – or their sheep - do more good to the land by keeping it shorn and fertilising it regularly. But there are so many questions to answer: how much does a farmer like Gheorghe earn? How does he make ends meet? Will he turn his enterprise into a bigger ‘unit’ like some others have done, does he have children who want to take on the sheep themselves, or will his flock die out with him. I realised I didn’t even know how much of the land was his and how much was rented. Most sheep farmers who graze the mountains in this area rent their land from the local council or from private owners. Very few have land in their own names, apart from their ‘gardens’, fraction of a hectare next to their village gospodarii (farmhouses).

He talked about new dairy and meat factories run by 'Arabs' (an umbrella term that Romanians use to include Turks and Middle Easterners in general), and told us that a Saudi company had tried to open a firm in Sibiu county but was refused permission – I couldn't discern why. Gheorghe corroborated what I'd read and heard elsewhere, that Romanian sheep farmers have started selling live lambs to Arab meat factories which ship them home from Constanta (in fact they started doing this right after the 1989 Revolution). Gheorghe sells a part of his lambs to such a firm, this time in Timisoara. I wondered how much of the market goes this way. He said there was a thriving Arab food factory in Sechindeal. I knew that a Chinese businessman had bought sheep in Oltenia to the south of the Carpathian Mountains – the Romanian farming scene, which a lot of British people imagine nostalgically as being small and medieval is incredibly diverse, and it’s changing all the time. I wanted to check it all out.

You can't live on subventions, Gheorghe told me, bursting the foolish bubble I've been walking around in for weeks, ie that the EU, that monster-or-angel (I can't decide which) somehow has a magic wand that could save Europe's small farmers – defined variously as subsistence, semi-subsistence and is there another level? - from penury and destruction. How easy it is for a lazy researcher to accept what other people want you to hear. It's also because I don't want to believe that the traditional farm will vanish, and want to believe that schemes like Natura 2000 and micro-regions such as Pogany Havas and one in the Fagaras Mountains (?) are a beginning of a way forward for the world as a whole, not a desperate attempt to save something that is doomed.

Gheorghe missed out on the grant this year, and said that the admin was very slow. Did the Sheep Owners' Association help him? 'Not really', he looked rather pissed off about it, curling his lips. But it seems the market for lamb, sold live, is growing. There have to be worries about their welfare, during transit as well as the methods used to killing them, but I can’t put my hand on my heart and say that death by abattoir is better than having your throat cut. And as an avid meat eater I feel I’m on a sticky wicket by criticising the people who provide me with food without knowing more – how it feels to be a lamb facing slaughter.

Empathy with the animals, with the farmers and workers who raise them, not to speak of the environment and the carnivorous animals who are protected species (so shepherds whose flocks are attacked cannot legally kill them) puts me in a quandary which it’s hard if not impossible to sort out. I could of course turn vegetarian but if we all did that would not the landscape change out of all recognition, losing its beautiful balance – in the best Romanian cases – between wild forest, pasture and cultivation? I had come to Romania to search for answers, and all I found were more questions.

There had to be other people looking for solutions other than, a) turning the entire landscape - apart from seas, open cast mines, quarries and cities, oh and golf courses - into factory farms in which the animals never saw the light of day, and turning the rest into featureless prairies, b) letting the world starve. And other than a cataclysm, which, as I thought gloomily to myself as the arguments tipped one way and the other like a boat about to capsize, is already happening but ‘we’ – the rich part of the world - just don’t want to see it. 

Meanwhile, the weather has changed dramatically in Romania (in the mountains it's gone from a heatwave to snow within a few hours), and three of the five shepherds I've been in touch with are already on the road, heading west and north.

Lots more pictures to come - owing to prior commitments, I've had to leave Romania for the present, which is why I'm able to update the blog. But I'll be back again, either at Christmas or in the new year, and meanwhile hope to find out how the shepherds are getting on, not by carrier pigeon but mobile phone. They recharge their batteries wherever possible on the road and at their winter destinations some of them have chargers attached to car batteries. 

Sibiu, 22 September 2011

Gone... (but still going)

Nearly two months since my first post and this is the first time I've had to update the blog.

This has been an exceptionally dry year in the Carpathian Mountains and the shepherds of Marginimea Sibiului are taking their time before deciding when to leave. Most have to bring their flocks down from the higher pastures on or by 1st October. That's the rule laid down by the mayors of comune who rent out many of the mountains for grazing. It helps the land to recover and from an environmental point of view, it ties in with EU legislation that gives grants to farmers or landholders who own mountain hayfields and pastures in return for clearing the land of saplings. The grants are dependent on a law that says you mustn't cut your hay before 1st July, which is OK as a general rule but makes life difficult for some. I learnt this and a lot more by going to the Rural'Est conference in Valea lui Boros in early August. The conference, or seminar as it was officially called, was organised by two researchers, one British and the other French, and it brought together academics, PhD students, researchers from French and Romanian think tanks and agricultural institutes, an anthropoligist, a farmer (only one!), two members of the European Commission, and interested hangers-on like me. It was a mainly French and Romanian affair although the other Brits included a PhD hopeful from London and Barbara Knowles, an extraordinary person who, while suffering from motor neurone disease has devoted her life - and experience as a biologist who advises the British government - to supporting the Pogany-Havas microregion, which in turn is helping to promote small-scale agriculture in eastern Transylvania, in conjunction with a grant from Natura 2000.

Contrast this well-orchestrated, brilliantly managed, extremely friendly gathering of academics and bureaucrats, a 'toe in the water' weekend in the beautiful mountains of Harghita, with the rough realities of shepherding and you'll wonder if you're living in the same world. That's the challenge - how to bring the two sides together without losing the purity of both.

So far, I'm still waiting to go on transhumance: my plans fell apart when I arrived in Rasinari and heard that the shepherd's son who was to have led the trek from Batrana to Lugoj was getting married, and that his parents didn't think it was wise to leave me to the mercies of the two hired shepherds who would be going without him. It was disappointing - a bit devastating in fact - but since I was there and had made the time free, I have decided to stay and make use of this opportunity to learn more about shepherding in the raw. It's not such a dramatic analogy: I've spent four days at a mountain top 'stana' or 'coliba', in the company of three (male) shepherds, 11 dogs, six donkeys, a mare and her colt foal. After bunking down in the wooden chalet, house, cabin, shack, call it what you want, for the first night (which meant sharing a room with the chief shepherd) I decided to try my luck outside for the remaining two. The best option seemed to be the cart, and so, with my alpine sleeping bag (it may have been the one my father used when he got lost in the Alps in 1962), a duvet (kindly provided by the shepherd's wife and pulled up to the stana with a car battery, some gherkins and tomatoes, my rucksack, me and the shepherd's son by a willing six year old mare), a well-worn cojoc (shepherd's full length sheepskin cloak) and anything else I could muster to keep out the cold and the dew, I had two of the best nights' sleep I've had for years. Well, with the exception of a niggling fear induced by the talk of wolves - paranoid images of a wolf leaping onto me and dragging me out of my bag proved unfounded, and the odd excursion 'in natura' under a mackerel and moon-lit sky.

Life is rough for these people, inspite/because of the sheer weight of work they have to in order to keep their flocks healthy and safe. It was only while up there, not far from Crint, and with a magnificent view over the Transylvanian plateau nearly 2000 metres below, that I twigged why British sheep can run free on the mountains and in fields without a constant human presence. The last wolf in Wales was killed in something like 1840 I think - tell me if I'm wrong - and goodness knows when bears died out there. Apart from rogue dogs, sheep rustlers, bugs, market forces - oh, and the menaces of an incomprehending and unsympathetic government - there isn't much that threatens sheep in our country. (That's looking at it from the sheep farmers' point of view, not the sheep's.)

I cane down from the fold in a mixture of relief and regret: it was a wonderful place to spend a few days, far from mobile phones and computers, with the sun blazing down on the undulating pastures with their close-cropped lawns, springs and mountain streams and scattered woods of beech, silver birch, maple and hazel. The sheep fold even had its own orchard, long since neglected so that the four or five apple trees were huge and their crops well out of reach. It was a great place to reflect on life, to write, read, to do nothing and not feel guilty about it.

I didn't do nothing actually: the fold was short-staffed because of a death in the family and twice when the remaining shepherds had to go and milk the ewes, they left me in charge of the 'sterpe' (the lambs and shearlings). About 300 heaving, straying, bleating sheep and their melodious bells. I had to keep them together in case a wolf came, a threat that seemed ridiculous in that almost English landscape, so much like parkland laid out by an 18th century landscape architect, only more so and better. It wasn't an idle threat: ten days earlier while visiting another fold belonging to the same family, I had - just missed - seeing a wolf by the river below the flock. Judging by the row made by the Carpathian sheepdogs and the shepherds' yells it wasn't a false alarm. But I have to admit to being disappointed that no wolf appeared on my watch.

A dogs' life: brought up to love dogs and have them as pets, I made the mistake of getting too close to the ones in the stana. It wasn't that they attacked me, quite the opposite - once they realised I was part of the fold so to speak, they mobbed me for affection and food. And it was wonderful to have a hairy canine head to scratch and fondle, its full weight in your hand, responding to love in a place where I was partly on sufference myself, and where I didn't feel entirely welcome. But the dogs slunk away at the sight of a shepherd, who more often than not bawled at them for hanging around the stana when they should have been protecting the sheep. The dogs were famished I think - they certainly didn't get fed as often as our at home. I know I'm treading on dangerous ground here, for I also grew up with a respect for working dogs and their masters - not a relationship you should interfere with. But the level of violence meted out to the mutts upset me and once after what seemed like a gratuitous act of cruelty, I let go and yelled my outrage. The response from the shepherd was a curling lip and a shrug of the shoulders. So much for Renaissance pastoral poetry, you might think, but these shepherds had their moments of feeling too: my host played a mean 'fluier' (wooden pipe, looking a bit like a recorder but sounding more like a flute), the younger ones liked to listen to folk music on their mobile phones, and the jokes were rich and fruity. Grudges didn't seem to be kept; the shepherd I shouted at wanted his photo taken on horseback the next day, and invited me to take up shepherding as a profession. Maybe he thought the swap would be in his favour. At least he'd get to sleep indoors.

Going, going...

In a couple of days' time I'll be off on another trip to Romania. I'm looking for stories relating to shepherding traditions and to families of shepherds who practised transhumance (the movement of livestock between summer and winter pastures) in southern Russia, the Crimea and the Caucasus from the 19th century onwards. As well as that my aim is to visit some mountain folds, talk to Peter Hurley, the prime mover behind the Drumul Lung cultural festival in Maramures, go to a Franco-Romanian seminar on rural development and - with luck and a fair wind - leg it some 200km on foot across the Carpathians in hot pursuit of a flock as it makes its way to the iernat (winter grazing grounds).

It won't be a completely rustic venture because I want to see for myself how, apparently unhindered by planning controls of any kind, developers are completing the destruction of some of Bucharest's finest architecture (the few splendid remains of the old city that Ceausescu didn't manage to bulldoze - not that Romania has a monopoly on ruining beautiful places), and I hope, catch some of the latest productions in Romanian theatre.

You can follow some of my Romanian interests on my website, www.mamaliga.co.uk, and if you've got iPlayer, listen to my piece on Smalzul, the milk measuring ceremony, for the BBC's From Our Own Correspondent, here http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/p00h05sk/From_Our_Own_Correspondent_Libya_and_Romania/broadcast